The Kot Kot Uyghur Messenger New Version

Kot Kot Uyghur Messenger New Version, The Ver 1.4.5

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Kot Kot Uyghur Messenger

The Kot Kot Uyghur Messenger born.

Uyghur Langugage Messemger, like the MSN, Yahoo Messenger, ICQ and QQ.

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耐干旱抗盐碱沙漠勇士胡杨 Toghraq

胡杨(维吾尔语是Toghraq)是荒漠带上惟一的大乔木。在荒漠上只要看到高２０米以上的大树，不用问，它准是胡杨树。
胡杨的形象很奇特。它的幼树枝条和叶子与柳树相似，而长到几米高以后，叶子才变得像杨树。边缘有许多缺口，很像枫叶。有的胡杨，一棵树上，下半部长着柳叶，上半部长着杨叶。更奇怪的是，在一些大胡杨树上，还长着一些非柳非杨的叶子，一棵树上竟有两三种不同的叶子，真让人捉摸不透。深秋，胡杨叶经霜打后熟透变成金黄，与大漠相映成趣，美不胜收。许多摄影家以此为景创作制成摄影精品佳作。
人们惯称的胡杨，是杨属的灰杨和胡杨两个品种，由于它们外形、习性相近，人们将它们统视为胡杨。胡杨是干旱沙漠地区惟一能构成浩瀚森林的乔木树种。胡杨是在温带荒漠气候条件下发育起来的树种，故对荒漠干旱气候有较强的适应性。
新疆是胡杨在我国乃至世界分布最多的地区。据说，全世界百分之九十的胡杨在中国，中国的胡杨百分之九十在塔里木盆地。仅塔里木盆地胡杨保护区的面积就达3800平方公里。北疆准噶尔盆地和内蒙古等地也有零星分布。
胡杨与人们生活息息相关，对防风防沙，改善生态环境发挥着重要作用。因此，它备受人们赞誉。人们夸赞胡杨巨大的生命力，说它的寿命是“三个一千年”：能在荒漠上活一千年不死，死后站立一千年不倒，倒后在沙漠中一千年不朽。这个有趣的说法虽未经科学证实，但在适宜条件下胡杨的确相当长寿，而且长久不朽不烂。这些特性在楼兰、尼雅和喀拉墩古城遗址中，许多纵横的胡杨桩柱至今未朽都得到佐证。
胡杨无愧于沙漠卫士、沙漠勇士的称誉。

维吾尔族的音乐

新疆自古就称歌舞之乡，维吾尔族的音乐歌舞也早名扬中外。维吾尔族的民间音乐继承了古代西域的龟兹乐、高昌乐、伊州乐、疏勒乐和于阗乐的艺术传统，保留着浓厚的民族特色和地域特色。
　　在长期的历史发展中，新疆各地的维吾尔民间音乐都融注了本地生活的乳汁，形成了风格迥异的南疆、东疆、刀郎色彩区。南疆色彩区范围较广，内容、形式又因地而异，和田民歌古朴短小，富有乡土气息；喀什民歌节奏复杂，调式丰富；库车民歌热烈活泼，具有鲜明的可舞性，隐隐透露着古龟兹乐声舞姿的遗风；东疆色彩区包括哈密、吐鲁番等地，民间歌曲在结构、调式等方面，都同汉族、蒙古族民间歌曲有许多近似之处；刀郎色彩区的民歌风格粗犷，保留着古代从事游牧的刀郎人所喜爱的牧歌情调。
　　在维吾尔族音乐史上，驰名中外的维吾尔族传统大型套曲《十二木卡姆》占有重要地位，它是一部维吾尔民族音乐舞蹈完美结合的艺术瑰宝。它包括了古典叙诵歌曲、民间叙事诗歌、舞蹈乐曲和即兴乐曲等三百四十多首，流传于南北疆各地。木卡姆因地区不同而分为、“刀郎木卡姆”、“哈密木卡姆”、“伊犁木卡姆”等。其中以“喀什木卡姆”的规模最宏大，形式曲调最为完整。对这木卡姆的发展与规范化，16世纪叶尔羌第二代君主阿布都热西提汗的王后阿曼尼莎汗曾起了不可磨灭的贡。《十二木卡姆》于新中国成立后经系统整理正式出版。全套木卡姆共包括170多首歌曲和歌舞曲，72首器乐间奏曲，连续演奏时间长达24小时之久，具有有乐、有舞、有词的民族特点。这是一部巨大而完整的，几乎概括了维吾尔族数百年斗争生活及其所有民族艺术形式的音乐史诗。维吾尔族音乐的鲜明特点还表现在民族乐器的多样性。
　　远在隋唐时期，龟兹等地就盛行五弦琵琶、曲项琵琶、箜篌、筚篥等乐器，并伴随西域音乐而传入中原。现在的维吾尔族民间乐器就是在继承古代西域各地乐器的基础上，并接收中外乐器的影响而发展起来的。
　　维吾尔族的乐器制作精细，按其结构和演奏方式，有吹奏、拉弦、弹拨、打击乐器等数十种。演奏方式，有吹奏、拉弦、弹拨、打击乐器等数十种。吹奏乐器中有笛子、唢呐、喀纳依（长喇叭）、拉曼等，都是使用范围较广，有悠久历史的乐器。拉弦乐器有萨它尔、艾捷克等。萨它尔大约于10至12世纪在原琵琶（今多朗热瓦甫）和突厥古老乐器库布兹的基础上创制而成的，是演唱《十二木卡姆》的专用乐器。艾捷克是维吾尔族民乐队伴奏和合奏中的主要乐器。弹拨乐器有都塔尔、热瓦甫、弹布尔、卡龙和扬琴等，都是维吾尔族男女老幼喜爱的乐器。都塔尔装有两根弦，在维吾尔族中比较普及，家庭普遍备用，多用作自弹、自唱。热瓦甫也是维吾尔族中比较普及的乐器之一，在南疆地区更为多见，常常与其它乐器一起为歌舞伴奏，也用作独奏和合奏。喀什的热瓦甫琴身、琴杆和琴头上部以兽骨镶嵌出美丽而丰富的民族图案，既是民族乐器，又是精致的工艺品。弹布尔是民族风格鲜明，声音响亮而优美的乐器，常作独奏和伴奏。卡龙也是维吾尔族古老乐器之一，多在演奏木卡姆时使用，在演奏中起领奏作用。打击乐器有达甫（手鼓），纳格拉（铁鼓）、萨巴依和恰赫恰克（对石）。达甫是维吾尔族古老的乐器之一，遍布天山南北，是乐队合奏和歌舞中不可缺少的打击乐器。纳格拉用于乐队合奏，音量洪大，传音很远。萨巴依与恰赫恰克，是本身碰击发声的乐器。
　　萨巴依在民间多数为演唱“麦西来甫”伴奏，解放前，有些在生活上遭受苦难的人或者是厌世不平者，披散须发，手执萨巴依在坟园墓地，悲愤歌唱，以抒发痛苦之情，也有的乞讨者，坐在路旁，平执萨巴依，唱着歌，向人乞讨。另外，它也是巴克西，用作为病人“驱邪”治病的乐器之一，增添热烈气氛。恰赫恰克可以奏出多种节奏，能丰富乐队的表现色彩。
　　萨巴依在民间多数为演唱“麦西来甫”伴奏，解放前，有些在生活上遭受苦难的人或者是厌世不平者，披散须发，手执萨巴依在坟园墓地，悲愤歌唱，以抒发痛苦之情，也有的乞讨者，坐在路旁，平执萨巴依，唱着歌，向人乞讨。另外，它也是巴克西，用作为病人“驱邪”治病的乐器之一，增添热烈气氛。恰赫恰克可以奏出多种节奏，能丰富乐队的表现色彩。
　　萨巴依在民间多数为演唱“麦西来甫”伴奏，解放前，有些在生活上遭受苦难的人或者是厌世不平者，披散须发，手执萨巴依在坟园墓地，悲愤歌唱，以抒发痛苦之情，也有的乞讨者，坐在路旁，平执萨巴依，唱着歌，向人乞讨。另外，它也是巴克西，用作为病人“驱邪”治病的乐器之一，增添热烈气氛。恰赫恰克可以奏出多种节奏，能丰富乐队的表现色彩。

The pretty Uyghur Girls

Look at this pretty Uyghur Girls.

The Google Company

Look at this Google Company

International Foolsh Day

Today is International Foolsh Day.
2008-04-01

X - BAR SYNTAX

X - BAR SYNTAX

Robert N. St. Clair

INTRODUCTION

The traditional parts of speech have undergone many changes since their inception among the Roman grammarians. The structuralists found them to be inadequate in accounting for the kinds of grammatical categories that exist among most of the non-European languages in the world. When Chomsky developed his model of transformational grammar, he returned to the issue of the traditional parts of speech. He argued that all languages should have similar parts of speech. The reasons for this assertion is based on his assumption that there are universal phrase structure rules that operate across all languages. The universal parts of speech in the earliest model of his grammar were few in number (NP, Det, AUX, VP, S) but with the passage of time they were expanded to include other lexical and phrasal categories.LEXICAL CATEGORIES N = NounV = VerbAUX = Auxiliary VerbA = AdjectiveADV = AdverbDET = DeterminerDEG = Degree of ExpressionCONJ = Coordinating ConjunctionPRO = Pro Constituent or Pro FormQ = Quantifier PHRASAL CATEGORIES S = Sentence or ClauseNP = Noun PhraseVP = Verb PhraseAP = Adjectival PhrasePP = Prepositional PhraseADVP = Adverbial PhraseQP = Quantifier Phrase THE PROBLEM WITH PHRASE STRUCTURE CATEGORIES Linguists began to notice that there were problems with the aforementioned lexical and phrasal categories. The problem was that they needed another kind of category between lexical and phrasal categories. For the present, this new level will be called the X-Bar category.Phrasal Categories X-Bar Categories Lexical Categories The reason that they needed these new "phrase structure nodes" had to do with the process of pronominalization. This occurs when a Noun or a Noun Phrase is substituted by a pro-form. The man saw Harry (Noun) The man saw him (Pronoun)I like fast cars (Noun Phrase)I like them (Pro Noun Phrase) Linguists discovered that other kinds of constituents are pronominalized. These constituents are neither full noun phrases nor mere lexical phrases, but phrases that are intermediate to these, viz., X-Bar Categories. Consider the example of "very tall" in the following phrase marker:

The 2008 Beijing Olympic

2008 Beijing Olympic

The Uyghur PIC

The Uyghur Yingsar Knife



Uyghur (Uighur, Uygur, Uigur)

语言学的流派

1、历史比较语言学，奠基人：丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑；2、结构语言学，包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派；3、转换生成学派；4、系统功能学派；5、社会语言学派。主要的语言学家及其代表作 索绪尔 （瑞士） 《普通语言学教程》被称为现代语言学之父 布龙菲尔德（美国）《语言论》是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作。 特鲁贝茨科依（俄国）《音位学原理》 是布拉格学派的杰出代表。 乔姆斯基（美国）《句法结构》是转换生成学派的代表。 高本汉（瑞典）《中国音韵学研究》 韩礼徳 （英国）《功能语法导论》系统功能学派代表 拉波天（美国）〈语言演变理论的经验基础〉社会语言学代表 赵元任（中国）〈现代吴语的研究〉〈音位标音法的多能性〉 叶尔姆斯列夫(丹麦）《语言理论导论》哥本哈根学派代表十四、为什么说历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位？ 历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法，通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们的共同母语。历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，主要是印欧语系的历史比较，19世纪之前，这种研究不是没有，但都是孤立的分散的研究，到19世纪才进入系统的研究，并使语言学走上独立发展的道路。19世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学的发展做出了重要贡献。他们收集了丰富的语言材料，进行了广泛深入的调查和比较，不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的譜系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。

From: http://www.kashghari.com/zh-cn/

HISTORY OF KASHGAR 4

Bashkeram Orchard
Kashgar has always enjoyed the reputation of being a "Land of Fruits and Melons," with Bashkeram ranking first in the area. Among the great variety of fruits in Bashkeram , apricot alone has more than twenty strains, and grape, apple and pear have nearly twenty strains each.Also there are many strains of cherry, plum, peach, quince, date and so on. Each of the fruits has early middle and late ripening varieties. In May, the white, sweet and tasty mulberry ripens and , from then on, apricot, cherry, fig, sweet-kernel peach, jasper peach, flat peach , pear, apple,grape, pomegranate and pistachio and badam, the high-valued dry nut fruits in China,ripen one after another. The fruit harvest does not end until the beginning of November.You will find it easily by the help of local guide or taxi driver.
Chini Bagh
In Uyghur,Beautiful garden,was the home of for 28 years of the most famous of British India's representatives in Kashgar,Sir George Macartney and his wife.The gardes are destroyed to make room for large tourist hotel,Chini Bagh Hotel,and behind it id the house where the Macartneys lived.Now reserved for official visitors.
Russion Consulate
The once luxurios. Russion Consulate (now Seman Hotel) was the home of the powerful Nikolai Petrovsky,Macartney's chief adversary in the Great game.Now it is made room for tourists.If any one want to check in,have to make reservation through any organization in Kashgar.

Three Immortal Budda Caves

It is 10km. Away from Kashgar on the road to Torugart Pass.From opposite side of Qakmak river,it is visible but it is impossible to see inside without taking special way.It is 30m above of river at the cliff.Dating from the second and third century,they are the earliest Buddist caves extant in China.However,if you are intentupon seeing them,arrangements must be made by KMA.Karakul Lake It si 190km from Kashgar om the Kara Koram Highway with the elevation of 3600m aboe sea level..It is on the lap of tw giants,Muztagh Ata regardec "the father of ice mountains",Kongur reputated with more avalanche.It is rare highland lake in the world.by the lake,there are yurst and restaurant available for tourists to stop and over night.In a fine day,You get a good view of Muz- tagh Ata and Kongur and snow-cappad peaks , flocks of animals,grassland are all invertedly reflected in the water,wich looks magistic.



From: http://www.kashghari.com/en

HISTORY OF KASHGAR 3

ECONOMY
The industry of Kashgar was developed very slowly. Nowdays variors industrial sys-tems have been completed, including coal, electric power, cement, building materials, chemistry, farming machinery,textile, leather products, ceramics, paper-making and food processing industries. Cotton printing and dyeing,cement producing, and hydropower are the key industrial enterprises of Kashgar. The highway network, Taking Kashgari as a hub,Are: Tibet-Xinjiang Highway crossing the Kunlun Mountains with a total length of 1,184 kilometers. Xinjiang-Qinhai Highway (go along the southern Silk Road) Famous Karakoram highway(KKH) Highway to Kyrgyzstan via Torugart Pass and Erkashtam Pass Kashgar-Urunqi Highway Kashgar Prefecture has 415,620 hectares of cultivated land, 1.33 million hectares of reclaimable l-and and 2.26 million hectares of pastureland, of which 239,467 hectares is first rate. The content of organic substances of the soil generally ranges from 0.5 to 10 percent. Wheat, maize and cotton are the main crops.In Kashgar also grows rice, barley, highland barley, rape, sesame, peanuts and flax.
SCIENCE, EDUCATION, CULTURE AND COMUNICATION
Kashar has two institutions fro advanced learning, one is branch of the Central Television Universiy,Kasshgar teacher's college, seven specialized secondary schools, 172 ordinary secondary schools and 1,098 elementary schools.There are fourteen professional organizations fro litireture, art, photograph, dance. Kashgar Daily is published here in Uyghur and Chinese. Kasgar has fine television broadcasting system and tlecom system.International call and internet is available everywhere.Most of the part can receive CCTVprogram in different chanels. l.

From: http://www.kashghari.com/en

HISTORY OF KASHGAR 2

LOCATION AND AREA
Kashgar is 141,600 square kiolmeters in total area and between latitude 35 20 to 40 18 north and longitude 73 20 to 79 57 east in the sourthen part of Xinjiang, is contiguous with the Taklimakan Desert on its east and borders Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India to its west and southwest respectively. The city of Kashgar, a place of strategic importance in south Xinjiang, has an area of fifteen square kilometers with an average elevation of 1289.5 meters. The city is located between latitude 39 25 to 39 35 north and longitude 75 56 to 76 04 east and lies 1,473 kilometers from Urumchi,capital city of of Xinjianng Uihgur Autonomous Region.



POPULATION AND NATIONALITIES
Kashi Prefecture has a population of 3.3 million, of which the Uygur nationality comprises 92.92 percent, the Han, 5.6 percent and the Tajik, 1.03 percent, with the other 0.45 percent made up of Hui, Kirgiz, Ozbek, Kazak, Manchu, Xibe, Mongol, Tatar and Daur nationalities.The city of Kashar has a population of 200,000, 74.62 percent of which is Uyghur and 24.32 percent of which is Han Chinese and other minorities.
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Kashar Prefecture has one city (Kashag) and eleven counties: Tokkuzak(Shufu in Chinese), Yengishar (Shule), Yengisar, Yopurga, Payzawatt, Yarkant(Shache), Poskam(Zepu), Kahilik(Yecheng), Markit, Maralbashi (Bachu) and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County,under its jurisdiction. There are twenty-six towns and subdistrict offices, 134 townships, 2,310 villagers' committees and ninety-six neighborhood committees in Kashgar.
CLIMATE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Kashgar is located in the temparate zone of a continental climate. The climate in this area varies greatly because of the varied topograghy. Specifically, the Kashgar can be divid-ed into zones plain climate, desert climate, mountain climate, the Pamir Plateau climate and the Kunlun Mountains climate. Located in the plain climate zone with the clear four seasons, Kashgar has a long summer and a short winter. The annual mean temperature is 11.7 C, with the lowest temperature of -24.4° C in January and the hottest 40.1°C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. The annual mean precipitation is 27 millimeters. The two river system of the Yarkant River and the Kashgar River in this area have five big rivers with a total annual runoff of 10.9 to 11.9 billion cubic meters. The volume of underground water in this area is about one billion cubic meters. The per capita water volume of the whole prefecture is about 5,000 cubic meters, twice the national figure. The hydropower reserves of the prefecture are about 7.6 million kilowatt, 1,2 million of which can be easily exploited. Mineral resoures in the prefecture include coal, mica, asbestos,g-ypsum, limestone, natural sulphur, vanadium, titaniun, iron copper, zinc, nickel, phosphorus, beryllium, white marble and so on. Oil deposits, in particular, are considerably large and several of oil wells have been drilled in Kasgar. Flora resources in the prefecture include mountain vegetation, plain vegetation, oasis vegetation, desert vegetation and marshland vegetation. The proportion of forested-land is 1.7 percent with 94,667 hectares of primitive forests. In Kashgar grows variety of trees,sush as poplar, willow, mulberry, narrow-leaved oleaster, Chinese scholartree, Chinese parasol, pine, China fir, cypress, divesiform-leaved poplar and red willow. Average Temperature per month 　 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMaximum 0 4 14 22 26 30 32 31 26 20 10 1Minimum -11 -6 2 9 13 16 19 18 12 5 -2 -8

HISTORY OF KASHGAR 1

Kashgar is a important hub on the Old Silk Road,a vibrant Islamic centre within Chinese territory. It is the largest oasis city in Chinese Central Asia and 90 per cent of its population of over 3,000,,000 are Uygur.Only in The city is populating 300,000. Kashgar's importance derives from its stratehic position at the foot of the Pamir Mountains, commanding access to the high glacial passes of the Silk Road routes into Central Asia, India and Persia. The weary trade caravans plodding west on the northern and southern routes met up at Kashgar, the desert hazards and demons finally behind them. Merchants bound for China thawed out after descending to Kashgar from the peaks of the Pamirs or the Karakorams, and exchanged their stolid yaks and exhaused packhorses for camles to convey their merchandese into Inner province of China. Kashgar Has a history of more than 2'000 years. the earlist reference appeared in Persian documents referring to an alliance of Tushlan tribes, who founded their capital here. Kashgar was posibly the first of the Buddhist kingdoms of the Tarim basin. In the second century AD, Hinayana Buddhism flourished here and continued to do so until the ninth or tenth century. During this period Indian and Persian cultural influences were strong. Xuan Zang noted that the Kashgaris had green eyes-perhaps a reference to Aryan origins-and that for their writing they take their model from India....The disposition of the men is fierce and impetuous, and they are mostly false adn deceitful. They make light of decorum and politeness, and esteem learning but little. In the first century AD, during the Han Dynasty, China lost its power over the Tarim Basin. The great General Ban Chao was dispatched to subdue the wild kingdoms of Silk Road that had aligned themselves with the Xiongnu against the Chinese. He took the kingdoms of Kashgar, Hetian and Loulan either by brute force or cunning strategy, installed pro-Chinese rulers and reopened the southern Silk Road to trade. Ban Chao remained in Chinese Central Asia for 31 years, crushing rebellions and establishing diplomatic relations with more than 50 states in the Western Regions. Accompanied by horsemen arrayed in bright red leather,he himself went as far west as Merv and made contacts with Parthia,Babylonia and Syria. In the early seventh century,Kashgar recognized the suzerainty of Tang China, which garrisoned the city. However, the Chinese were soon forced to withdraw between 670and 694, when Tibet expanded its territories throughout the southern oases of Tarim Basin.Between the tenth and 12th centuries the Kharakhanid Khanate, a loose mondic alliance of the Qarluq Turkic tribes, controlled the area between Bokhara and Hetian from its capital in Kashgar. The Sunni Muslim, Satuq Bughra Khan, was the first king of the Kharakhanid of Kashgar; he and his successors carried on bloody jihads against the still-Buddhist kingdoms of yarkant and Hotan. These battles, along with fierce Kharakhanid internecine struggles, disrupted the caravan trade, and East-West trade was increasingly forced to relay on the sea routes. Following the death of Chaghatai, who inherited the region from his father, Ghengis Khan,there followed numerous succession wars. Only briefly during the mid-14th century, when Telug Timur had his capital in Kashgar, was a degree of calm and stability restored,But Tamerlane's armies were soon to lay waste to the Kingdom of Kashgaria. In the 16th century,Kashgar came under the ruler of a religious leader, or khoja, whose colleagues formed a powerful clique in Bokhara and Samarkand. A theological split saw the formation of two opposing sects, the Black and White Mountaineers,which began a bloody see-sawing of power between Kashgar and Yarkant that ended `only with Qing intervention two centuries later. The Khojas attempted to return to power in Kashgar no fewer than six times,frequently backed by the Khokand Khanate and aided by Kirgiz nomadic horsemen,bringing fearful reprisals on the citizens. An unfortunate observer of the khojas' last atempt in 1857 was a German,Adolbhus Schlagintweit, whose throat was cut because of his arrogant comment that the three-month siege of Kashgar would have taken his countrymen a mere three days. Kashar was substantially fortified during the short but violent reign of Yakup Beg, who ruled Kashgaria from 1866 to 1877. This infamous soldier from Khokand ruled most of Xinjing, from Kashgar to Urumqi,Turpan and Hami,concluded treaties with Britain and Russia, and had the support of the Ottoman Empire. In 1869, Robert Shew, a British trader and unoffical dilomat, became the first Englishman to visit Kashgar and Kashgar, and was able to command two audiences with Yakub Beg,even though he was under virtual house arrest for the duration of his stay in the city.He wrote of Kashgar:'Intering the gateway, we passed throgh several large quadrangles whose sides were lined with rank of brilliantly attired guards, all sitting in solem silence so that they seemed to form part of the architecture of the building....Entire rows of these men (were)clad in silken robes and many seemed to be of high rank judging from the richness of their equipment.' After a leisurely three-year advance on Xinjiang, the 60,000 strong Chinese army of Zuo Zongtang suppressed the Muslim rebellions in Gansu and then moved southwest through the oasis towns, eventually ending Yakub Beg's rule in 1877. Yakub Beg fled to Kashgar where he died-rumoured to have either had a stroke or poisoned himself.In 1884,Qing government establish Xinjiang as province first.As anti-Chinese Muslim rebellions broke out throughout Xinjiang in the 1930s, a pan-Turkic Islamic movement based in Kashgar declared an Independent Muslim Republic of Eastern Turkestan.In 1949,the three arear-revalutionary army accept the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party,xinjiang entered a new construction. The Kashgar prefecture administers 11 counties,one city with a population of over 3 million. It is one of the main agricultural areas of Xinjing,producing cotton,rice,wheat,corn,beans and fruit.

The Turkic Language Family

The Turkic language family consists of some thirty languages. Traditionally, the Turkic languages are classified according to the word for foot (Samoilovich 1922), which divides the Turkic language family into two main branches. In the central Turkic languages (of the Oguz, Kypchak and Chagatay subgroups) the word for foot is *ayak, which ultimately developed from an older form *adak. The periferal Turkic languages (the Northeastern Turkic languages, Khalaj and Chuvash), spoken along the outer rim of the Turkic linguistic area, have developed along different lines than the central Turkic languages; they have retained this older form *adak in some way, and did not develop *y from *d. Mostly for geographical reasons, Western Yugur has sometimes been considered a dialect of Modern Uygur, together with Salar. Salar and Modern Uygur, however, both belong to the *ayak branch of Turkic languages.The Turkic languages according to subgroups Subgroup Language Foot Mountain Yellow Oguz Turkish ayak dagh sarï Gagauz ayak dagh sarï Azeri ayag dagh sarï Turkmen ayak daagh saarï Salar ayax tagh sarï Kypchak Kazak ayaq tau sarï Karakalpak ayaq tau sarï Nogay ayak taw sarï Kumyk ayaq taw sari Karachay-Balkar ayaq tau sarï Karaim ayaq tau sarï Tatar ayaq tau sarï Bashkir ayaq tau harï Kyrgyz ayak too sarï Altay ayak tuu sarï Chagatay Modern Uygur ayaq tagh seriq Lop ayaq taq sariq Uzbek oyoq tagh sariq Mogoli ayaq taq sariq Northeast Yakut atax tïa arïï Dolgan atak tïa arïï Tuva *adak dagh sarïgh Tofa *adak dagh sarïgh Khakas azax tagh sarïgh Shor azax tagh sarïgh Chulym azax ... sarïgh Western Yugur azaq thagh sarïgh Khalaj hadaq taag saarugh Chuvash ura tu s'urâ In general, the Turkic language family is fairly homogeneous, and some Turcologists refer to the vernaculars of this family as dialects, rather than as separate languages. Many of the Turkic languages in the table above have been given a separate language status for political and/or geographical reasons, rather than for linguistic ones. The main linguistic criterion for considering two vernaculars as dialects of a single language, rather than as two separate languages, is mutual intelligibility. An obvious problem is that this criterion can be interpreted with some flexibility: two short studies assessing the mutual intelligibility between Turkish and Azeri diverged between 66% and 92% mutual intelligibility!On the level of individual words, mutual comprehensibility can be high. Some basic words occur in nearly all Turkic languages in nearly the same form, and a speaker of Azeri can understand a speaker of Western Yugur when s/he says aht, horse (at in Azeri), or pash, head (bash in Azeri). Other basic words differ: for instance, the Western Yugur word for nose is qarq, from an older Turkic form *kañïrïk, nose or bridge or septum of the nose, while the Azeri word for nose is burun, from an older Turkic form *burun, nose or front. This word survives in Western Yugur as phorn, meaning only front or before. Some words only seem to be similar but are not. For instance, Karakalpak zhoq, no(t), is the equivalent of Turkish yok, and not of Turkish çok, much. Modern Uygur bilen, with, is equivalent to Turkish ile, not to Turkish bilen, knowing.On the level of phrases and texts, however, mutual comprehensibility rapidly decreases, certainly with regard to languages of other subgroups. It will take a speaker of Azeri some time to figure out that Western Yugur senïñ atqa ni tighik-i? means: what is your name?, and s/he may remain puzzled at reading entire Western Yugur texts.Independent from the question of their status, whether language or dialect, the following vernaculars belong closer together. The very similar vernaculars Karachay and Balkar have been grouped together as dialects of one language, although the speakers of these dialects are geographically separated. Kazak and Karakalpak are very similar, but have been given a separate language status. Also Khakas, Chulym and Shor are linguistically closely related, but have been given a separate language status. Dolgan is a diaspora dialect of Yakut, having developed independently for some 300 years. Gagauz, spoken in Bulgaria and Moldavia, developed from a Turkish dialect that spread in the Balkans during the Ottoman conquests, and was greatly influenced by the surrounding Slavonic languages. Uzbek, closely related to Modern Uygur, has been greatly influenced by Persian. Tatar and Bashkir are closely related, as are Tuva and Tofa. Tofa has very recently obtained the status of a separate language. Also Kyrgyz and Altay are more closely related; the Altay language, however, has been influenced by the neighbouring language Khakas.

From: http://www.kashghari.com/en

生成句法——经济原则

经济原则 力提甫·托乎提（博士生导师，教授）

在最简方案中经济原则占主要地位。也就是说，人类语言行为遵守经济原则，生成语法的描写也应反映经济原则。其实经济原则贯穿了人类一切活动，语言活动也不例外。这里的大道理是不言而喻的，即宇宙的空间和时间是无限的，而人类资源和人的精力是有限的。为了使自己有限的精力或资源能延续到更多的空间和时间，人必须遵守经济原则，能节省的就应节省。这一原则在语言活动中有无数的表现。句法上的表现就是其中之一。最简方案的假设是，假定有一套固定的词项，人脑的运算系统可以从这套词项中推导出好几种不同的推导式。但相比之下，只有符合经济原则的那一个推导式才算合格或合乎语法。其他几个推导式会失败（crash）或被看作不合语法。当然，经济原则和合乎语法也不是一回事。这些概念都是相对而言的。Marantz（1995）指出，假定有一个“懒惰性”的经济原则，它不要求运算系统做任何事情。如果这一原则占主导地位，我们可能无法生成语音和逻辑结构上合乎语法的结构来。因为最符合“懒惰性”经济原则的做法就是把一套词项原封不动地堆在一起，不做任何运算操做。但同时再假定生成合乎语法的结构的需求高于或强于“懒惰性”原则，这时运算系统可能用尽可能少的操做来把这套词项聚合在一起。从理论上讲，在可能出现的所有推导式中，运算系统投入精力最少的、最接近“懒惰性”原则的那个推导式会在竞争中胜出，成为这套词项最符合语法的推导式。Marantz（同上）曾把语言学上的经济原则分为三个子原则，即最短程移位（shortest Move）原则、延缓（Procrastinate）原则、和利己（Greed）原则。让我们简要讨论一下这三个子原则。

From: http://www.kashghari.com/zh-cn/

英语歧义现象探讨

英语歧义现象探讨　
吴秀玲
（上海电力学院　外语系，上海　200090）
摘　要：从语音、词汇、语法和语用4个方面探讨了英语歧义现象，提出歧义是一种普遍而重要的语言现象，歧义分析有助于提高理解和运用语言的能力．　　关键词：歧义；歧义分析；意义；语言结构Study on English Ambiguity　　WUXiu－ling　　（Dept．of Foreign Languages，Shanghai University of Electric Power，Shanghai　200090，China）　　Abstract：This paper discusses English ambiguity at four levels，phonological，lexical，grammaticaland pragmatical．It points out that understanding ambiguity phenomenon is important since it widelyexists．Ambiguity analysis can help improve the ability in language understanding and languageapplication．　　Key words：ambiguity；ambiguity analysis；meaning；language form　　

歧义是语言结构形式与其意义之间的一种特殊关系．一种语言结构具有一个以上的意义则被称为歧义．它可以是由于一个词表示诸多意义，一个结构形式体现几种结构层次关系，或一个言语表现不同的意图或含义等产生的．歧义现象在语言运用过程中普遍存在．英语歧义性探讨在语言教学、翻译理论和实践、文学语言研究等方面具有一定的作用，可以帮助人们提高理解和运用语言的能力．1　语音歧义　　　　语音歧义（Phonological Ambiguity）是指在谈话中由于语音有歧义而使听话人可能产生多种理解，其表现形式为同音异形异义词、同形同音异义词，以及由于连读、弱读等造成的语音歧义．1．1　同音异形异义词歧义　　英语中有些词，如bear熊，bare赤裸的；flower花，flour面粉；hear听见，here这里；hour小时，our我们的；meat肉，meet遇见；rite仪式，right正确；sight视力，site地基；sun太阳，son儿子；sew缝纫，sow播种；their他们的，there在那里等．它们的发音相同，拼写不同，表达的意义也不同，在口语交际时有时会产生误解．比如在句子［aihvθrunflau′wei］中，就会出现下面两种解释：　　（1）Ihave thrown the flower away．　　我把花扔了．　　（2）Ihave thrown the flour away．我把面粉扔了．　　当然，此类歧义只在口语中存在，句子一写出来，歧义就消除了．1．2　同形同音异义词歧义　　在词典中分属不同词条，发音相同，形状相同，而意义不同的词，叫做同形同音异义词．如：bank（河岸；银行）；bark（树皮；吠）；base（基础；卑鄙的）；bear（忍受；熊）；ear（耳朵；穗）；fine（美好的；罚金）；lean（倾斜；瘦的）；pupil（学生；瞳孔）；seal（海豹；封蜡）；spring（春天；弹跳）等．这些词在交谈中也会造成歧义．如：　　They wentto the bank last Saturday．　　听话人可以理解为：他们上周六去了银行，或他们上周六去了河岸．所以，句子表示的是歧义现象，属词汇歧义句，在没有上下文的情况下，两种理解都是成立的．1．3　连音造成歧义　　在说话过程中连音，造成相连的词或词组之间的音位切分的变化，也会造成歧义．如词组anice man和an ice－man，它们的音位切分均可描述为［nais mn］，但a nice man为“一个好人”，而anice－man为“零售冰的人”．同样，如a name（一个名字）与an aim（一个目的）；Iscream（我尖叫）与icecream（冰淇淋）等都属此类情况．2　词汇歧义　　词汇歧义（Lexical Ambiguity）是一种潜在的歧义，主要表现为一词多义和同形异义两个方面．2．1　一词多义　　一个词有两个或两个以上的意义，这些意义之间常有某种内在的联系，并在词典中归属一个词条的，称该词为一词多义．一词多义在造成词汇歧义中起着很重要的作用，特别是在脱离语境或语境不明确的情况下尤为如此．　　（1）He broke his glasses yesterday．　　由于glasses可以指“玻璃杯”，也可表示“眼镜”，故句子就有两种理解：他昨天把玻璃杯打碎了；他昨天把眼镜打碎了．　　（2）Whereisthe button？　　句中button同样可有两种解释，表示“纽扣”或“开关”，所以句子也有两种意义：扣子在哪里？开关在哪里？　　有些多义词甚至具有两个相反的词义，如wear这个词，既可表示“耐穿”、“耐磨”的意思，又有“磨损”、“穿破”的意思；同样，overlook可表示“检查”、“监督”，也可表示“看漏”、“忽略”，所以下面的句子可以有意思相反的解释：　　（3）This material won’t wear．　　这种材料不耐磨；这种材料不会磨损．　　（4）Ioverlooked the printer’s errors．　　我检查了印刷错误；我忽略了印刷错误．多义词词义不同，词性也可不同．例如：　　（5）The woman talking to her manageris a sweetsaleswoman．　　这里sweet作为形容词，可表示“亲切的”、“和蔼的”意思，但作为名词，表示“糖果”，所以句子可有两种解释：正在与经理谈话的这个人是一个和蔼可亲的售货员；正在与经理谈话的这个人是一个糖果售货员．　　（6）Time flies．　　句中time为多义词，可作名词，表示“时间”，也可作动词，表示“测定……的时间”，而fly是同形异义词，它可以是动词，表示“（时间）飞逝”，也可以是名词“苍蝇”，因此，此句句义可以为：光阴似箭（Timeflieslike an arrow．）；测定苍蝇飞行的速度．词类的不同既影响词义，又影响了句子的结构，出现了歧义交叉混合现象．当句义为“光阴似箭”时，句子属SV结构［主－动结构］，即time为名词作主语，flies为不及物动词作谓语．句义为“测定苍蝇飞行的速度”时，是一个祈使句，为（S）VO结构［（主）－动－宾结构］，time为及物动词作谓语，flies为名词复数作宾语．　　有些词组也存在多种意义．如：He’s runningafter her．run after可表示“追求”，也可表示“追（逐）”，句子可译成：他在追（求）她，或者他在追（赶）她．如果将after her作为介词短语，则句子的意思是：他在她后面跑着．2．2　同形异义　　同形异义词可分为3类，除了上面提到的同音异形异义词、同形同音异义词外，还包括同形异音异义词，如bow（弓；鞠躬）；lead（铅；皮带）；sewer（阴沟；缝纫者）；tear（眼泪；撕开）等．它们通常形状相同，但却是两个或两个以上意义完全不相关　　的词，在词典里一般都被列入单独的词条．　　（1）Isawher duck．　　这里duck为同形异义词，它可以是名词“鸭子”，也可以是动词“突然潜入水中”．故句子有两种理解：我看见了她的鸭子；我看见她潜入水中．　　同样，词类的不同，造成此句结构的变化，duck为名词时，句子为SVO结构［主－动－宾结构］，duck为动词时，句子为SVOC结构［主－动－宾－补结构］，因而也触发语法歧义．　　（2）Isawthempass the portthis morning．　　句中pass为多义词，可以表示“经过”，也可以表示“传递”，而port是同形异义词，它可以是名词“港口”，也可以是名词“葡萄酒”，这样，句子也有两种解释：今天早晨我看见他们经过港口；今天早晨我看见他们传喝葡萄酒．3　语法歧义　　　　语法歧义（Grammatical Ambiguity）又称为结构歧义，语言的歧义性主要以结构方面最为突出，表现在相同的表层结构可能有两个或两个以上的深层结构，因而有不同的解释．　　（1）He greeted his teacher with a smile．　　句中介词短语with asmile可以作状语修饰谓语动词greeted，也可以作定语修饰宾语histeacher，句子可以理解为：　　 　　［主－动－宾结构］　　他迎接带着微笑的老师．（介词短语with asmile归属histeacher．）　　（2）We are visiting scholars．　　这里，visiting可作为限定动词的一部分，与are构成现在进行时，也可为非限定动词（即现在分词）作定语，修饰scholars，即：　　 　　　　 （3）She caughtthe boy waiting for her daughter．此句可作以下两种结构分析：　 　　可见，这里句子所造成的歧义，除了catch一词多义（抓住，撞见）外，还涉及句子的结构．　　当句子为［主－动－宾－补］结构时，句义为：　　She caught the boy in the act of waiting for herdaughter．　　她撞见了那个男孩在等她的女儿．（waiting forher daughter的动作执行者是the boy．）当句子为［主－动－宾－状］结构时，句义为：　　She caughtthe boy while she was waiting for herdaughter．　　她在等她女儿时，抓住了那个男孩子．（waiting for her daughter这一动作的发出者是she．）　　（4）Flying planes can be dangerous．　　这是一个大家熟悉的歧义句，句意可以为：　　①To fly planes can be dangerous．　　驾驶飞机可能是危险的．　　②Planesthat are flying can be dangerous．正在飞行的飞机可能是危险的．　　此句的歧义是由flying planes引起的．在例句①中，flying planes为动宾结构，即flying是动名词（fly vt．驾驶），与planes构成动名词短语，在句中作主语．在例句②中，flying是现在分词（fly vi．飞行）作定语，在句中修饰planes，两者构成修饰关系，flying planes为名词短语作主语．　　可见，句子的歧义是由结构成分的不同归属、句中单词不同组合的可能性或不同的结构层次等引起的．4　语用歧义　　语言结构形式在实际运用中表现出的不同的意图或含义等，称为语用歧义（Pragmatical Ambiguity）．　　　　（1）Mr．Smith telephoned his father that he didnot knowthe truth．　　史密斯先生打电话给他父亲，说他不了解真相．　　在这个句子中，宾语从句中的代词he可以指Mr．Smith，也可以指Mr．Smith’s father，产生了照应歧义，即有两个照应对象，所以句子也有两种理解：　　史密斯先生打电话给他父亲，说他自己并不了解真相；史密斯先生打电话给他父亲，说他父亲并不了解真相．　　（2）Those textbooks cost＄6．　　这里，those textbooks可以分散地指称，强调那些教科书中的每一本，也可以集合指称，把thosetextbooks视为一整体，因此句子可有下面两种理解：　　①Each ofthose textbooks cost＄6．　　那些教科书每本售价6美元．　　②Those textbooks cost＄6 altogether．　　所有那些教科书售价6美元．　　　（3）Tomwanted money morethan Mary．　　此句也有两种理解：　　①Tom wanted money more than Mary（wanted　money）．　　汤姆比王马丽更想要钱．　　②Tom wanted money more than（he wanted）Mary．　　在钱和王马丽之间，汤姆更想要的是钱．　　　　句子的歧义是由于在省略的比较状语从句中，Mary可以是主格也可以是宾格造成的．5　结束语　　歧义是一种普遍的语言现象，它涉及语言的方方面面．歧义研究有助于具体而生动地认识语言结构及其运行规律，了解语言各层面之间的关系，以便能按照语言的规律去学习语言．　参考文献 ［1］　章振邦，等．新编英语语法教程［M］．上海：上海外语教育出版社，1983．［2］　林汝昌，等．语义学入门［M］．武汉：华中理工大学出版社，1993．［3］　何自然．语用学与英语学习［M］．上海：上海外语教育出版社，1997．［4］　邱述德．英语歧义［M］．北京：商务印书馆，1998．［5］　戴炜栋，等．简明英语语言学教程［M］．上海：上海外语教育出版社，1989．

From: http://www.kashghari.com/zh-cn/

语言学流派——转换生成流派

转换生成流派出现于二十世纪50年代末，以美国乔姆斯基为代表，运用转换-生成的理论和方法研究语言。其活动中心是在美国麻萨诸塞州的麻省理工学院；另外，在欧洲有一个专门研究转换-生成语法的学术组织，称为"旧大陆生成语言学协会"，它是一个国际性的生成学派的组织，于1975年秋成立于荷兰。 1957年乔姆斯基的《句法结构》出版，标志着"转换-生成语法"的诞生。这一理论是建立在理性主义的哲学基础之上的，它完全不同于建立在经验主义基础之上的美国结构主义，因此，它的出现是对当时居于主流地位的美国结构主义语言学的一大挑战，被人称作"乔姆斯基革命"。 转换-生成语法从提出至今已经四十多年了，在这期间，它主要经历了四个阶段： 第一阶段是"古典理论"时期，从1957年到1965年，《句法结构》是这个时期的代表作，有重要影响的理论有短语结构规则、转换规则以及语素音位规则。古典理论最显著的一个特点就是主张语法自主，把语义排除在语法之外，在这一点上与此前流行的结构语言学的理论是一致的。 第二阶段是"标准理论"时期，从1965年到1971年，代表作是《句法理论要略》，其语法包括四部分规则，即基础部分、转换部分、语义部分和语音部分。标准理论中最引人注目的修正是把语义纳入到语法中来，提出语法结构有深层和表层之别，深层结构决定语义，他通过转换规则而转化为表层结构。这一修正使它跟古典理论有了原则区别。 第三阶段是"扩展的标准理论"时期，从1972年到1979年，1972年出版的《深层结构、表层结构和语义解释》标志着这一时期的开始，而以1977年出版的《关于形式和解释的论文集》为代表，则对这一时期的理论又作了一些修正，因而也称为"修正的扩展的标准理论"。1972年的主要变化在于表层结构对语义解释也起一定的作用，而在1977年的理论中，语义解释则被全部放到了表层。此外，这一阶段还提出了"虚迹"的理论。 第四阶段是从1979年至今，以《支配和约束论集》为代表。这本书是根据乔姆斯基1979年在意大利比萨的一次学术会议上提出的"支配"和"约束"理论整理成的。这一阶段的理论有两个重大变化：一是在原来的规则系统之外增加了原则系统，二是提出了"虚范畴"。目前，支配和约束理论仍然处于不断的修正和发展中。 转换-生成语法强调对人的语言能力作出解释，而不是仅仅描写语言行为，它要研究的是体现在人脑中的认知系统和普遍语法。乔姆斯基认为"语言"不是实际存在的东西，这个概念是从语法中派生出来的，只有语法才是实际存在的，因此，转换-生成语法研究的对象是语法而不是语言。另外，转换-生成语法采用的是现代数理逻辑的形式化方法，根据有限的公理化的规则系统和原则系统用演绎的方法生成无限的句子，以此来解释人类的语言能力。所以说，转换-生成语法无论是在研究目的、研究对象，还是在研究方法上都和传统语言学、结构主义语言学有原则的区别。它为语言研究开辟了一条新的道路，展现了一个全新的发展方向，使语言学以新的面貌呈现于世。它对其他人文社会科学的发展也产生了重要的影响。 转换-生成学派的研究还包括生成音系学，它是生成语法学的一个分支，其任务是研究人头脑中的音系知识。生成音系学从酝酿、形成到标准理论，直至现在的非线性理论，一共也经历了四个发展阶段。代表人物有雅科布逊、哈勒、乔姆斯基等。1952年，雅科布逊、哈勒等人合写的《言语分析初探》、1956年乔姆斯基、哈勒等合写的《英语的重音与音渡》以及1968年乔姆斯基和哈勒共同撰写的《英语语音模式》分别是前三个阶段的代表性著作。《英语语音模式》中提出的标准理论使生成音系学在60年代的美国音系学中居于主流地位。1975年以后，生成音系学进入非线性理论时期，演化出各种名目的音系学，如自主音段音系学、节律音系学、词汇音系学等。在这一时期，乔姆斯基退出了音系学领域的研究而专攻句法，哈勒则仍是这一领域的旗手。 生成形态学也是转换-生成学派的一个研究范畴。乔姆斯基在"论名物化"一文中首先确定了形态学在生成语法中的特定作用，哈勒于1973年进一步提出了生成形态学的第一个明晰的模式，继而西格尔、杰肯道夫、阿罗诺夫等人跟进，又对生成形态学的模式作了一些改进。 总之，转换-生成学派以语法为研究目的，各个分支学科的研究都服从于这个目的，同时又都对各自领域的研究产生了重大影响。转换-生成学派的影响不仅体现在语言学方面，在其它学科，如计算机科学、人工智能以及认知科学等方面都产生了一定的反响。乔姆斯基认为，转换生成语法将促进认知科学的发展，并把语言学的研究和神经科学、心理学以及生物学等学科的研究结合起来，共同为探索人脑的奥秘作出贡献。 乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky,1928--），美国语言学家，转换-生成语法的创始人。1928年12月7日出生于美国宾西法尼亚州的费城。1947年，在哈里斯的影响下他开始研究语言学。1951年在宾西法尼亚大学完成硕士论文《现代希伯莱语语素音位学》，1955年又在该校完成博士论文《转换分析》，获得博士学位。从1955年秋天开始，他一直在麻省理工学院工作，曾任该校语言学与哲学系主任，并任该校认知科学研究中心主任，为语言学界培养了一批有素养的学者。 乔姆斯基是一位富有探索精神的语言学家。最初，他用结构主义的方法研究希伯莱语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立起转换-生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们称为"乔姆斯基革命"。后来他又不断丰富和发展转换-生成语法的理论和方法，相继发表了《句法理论要略》、《深层结构、表层结构和语义解释》、《支配和约束论集》等重要著作，对世界语言学的发展方向产生了巨大的影响。现在，转换-生成语法仍在继续发展之中。 乔姆斯基是美国当代一位有重大影响的语言学家，美国芝加哥大学、芝加哥洛约拉大学、英国伦敦大学都授予他名誉博士学位。乔姆斯基的学说不仅在语言学界，而且在哲学界、心理学界等很多领域也都有相当大的影响；计算机科学的兴起和发展也与乔姆斯基的语言理论有密切的关系，甚至有人称他为计算机科学的"老祖宗"。

维吾尔语 Ishtan 一词的词源探析

维吾尔语 Ishtan 一词的词源探析
The Origin of the Word "Ishtan" in Uyghur Language
常 红
(新疆大学 人文学院，新疆 乌鲁木齐 830046)
CHANG Hong
(School of Humanities, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China)
摘要：本文通过考证俄语借词 ishtan 在维吾尔语不同历史时期和俄语中语音形式以及词义的变化，推断该词原为古突厥语词汇，在察合台语时期借入俄语，后又回到维吾尔语中，是一种词汇的回流现象。关键词：ishtan; 词源; 回流词
Abstract:By analyzing the changes of Russian borrowed word "ishtan" in phonetic form and the meaning in Uyghur language's different historical periods, the article would infer that this word might be an ancient Turkic word, being borrowed to Russian during the Chaghatay language period, later came back to Uyghur language again. This is a back phenomenon of vocabulary.Key words: ishtan; Origin of words; back words
中图分类号：H215. 3文献标识码：A 文章编号：1001- 0823(2005)01- 0018- 04

每种语言都有一定数量的外来词，吸收外来词是一种很正常的语言现象，它是丰富和充实词汇的一条重要途径。借入外来词有外部原因和内部原因。外部原因是指民族间政治、经济、文化交往或军事冲突的影响。内部原因是指词汇体系自身发展的需要。外来词也不一定是所借语言的固有词汇，有些词又是该语言借自其它语言的。其中有一种有趣的借用现象，即原为A 语言的词被B语言借走，经过一段时间后重归故里，又回到A语言中，这种现象我们称做词汇的回流。这种现象也出现在维吾尔语中。维吾尔语 ishtan 是“裤子”之义，在《维吾尔语详解词典》中将它列为俄语借词，然而该词是俄语借自察合台语(维吾尔语的前身)ishtan 这一语言事实，却鲜为人知。对这一论点的论述需从 ishtan 一词的词源说起。1. Ishtan 在古代文献中的词义及语音变化 维吾尔族是一个古老的民族，曾有“袁纥”“韦纥”、“乌护”、“乌纥”、“回纥”、“回鹘”、“畏兀儿”等名称。维吾尔族的先民在公元 9 世纪以前一直过着“逐水草而生”的游牧生活。可想而知，在当时的条件下，为便于游牧射猎，“裤子”成为古代维吾尔族很重要的一种服饰。因而在语言中也就有了指称这一事物的名称。据文献记载，在古突厥语中表示“裤子”之义的词有 ichton、öm 和otran (古代样磨部落词语)①。 从结构上看，ichton 是由 ich 和 ton 结合而成的偏正式复合词。其中 ich 的古今义基本相同，是内部、内在”的意思。该词属于基本词汇，使用频率极高，而且构词能力也颇强，常和其它词组合成词或词组，如 ich ät (靠近肝脏的薄肌肉)、ich qur(裤带)、ich söz (心里话) 等。②ton 在现代维吾尔语中是“长袍”的意思，但在古代却泛指所有衣服，具有“上衣、外套”之义。我们在现存的各种文献资料中随处可见其踪迹。如muncha arib ton kädm isin (不再穿这不洁的衣服)③，qisqi ton、yayqi ton (冬衣、夏衣)④。ichton 一词最初应为一个词组，经过一段时间使用逐渐融合为一个词。ichton 还可加构词附加成分 lan 变为动词 ichtonlan，意为“穿裤子”如 Är ichtonlandi (人穿裤子了)⑤。这足以证明该词的结构已经固定化。此外，我们也可以得出一个结论即 ichton 的初始意义为“内裤”。下面是该词在保存至今的各种文献中的语音形式及词义演变： (1) 在 8 世纪回鹘文以及随后的世俗文书中，表示“内裤、裤子”。如“tishi kishining ichtonining aghinda”意为“女裤的裆”⑥。 (2) 荷兰东方学家M. Th. Houtsma 在其刊布的一本《突厥语-阿拉伯语词典》中第 18 页记录了 13 世纪克普恰克语中 ichton 一词的用法，意为“亚麻布衬衣、内衣”。 (3)Camalu’l- din ibnu’l- Muhanna 于公元14 世纪编著了《阿拉伯—突厥语词汇》一书。这部著作主要的描述对象是乌古斯语，而乌古斯语是以具有大量新疆维吾尔人的语言成分为特征的一种语言。由 Kilisli Ri’fat 刊布的该词典的第 167页 对 ichton 词 义 解 释 为“裤 子、内 裤”。 在Melioranski 刊布的这一词典的第 67 页记录了ishtan bäghi (裤带) ，仍为“裤子”之义。 (4) 一部著于 14 世纪的《古土耳其语详解词典》由学者 A. Caferoglu 发表，其中第 9 页对 ichton 一词做了如下解释：ichton 指“内衣”，是ich和 ton 组成的复合词。 (5) 著于 15 世纪的《土耳其妙语集萃》由B. A talay于 1945 年发表。该书是按字母顺序编写的阿拉伯—突厥语词表，主要描述了土库曼语和克普恰克语的语言特点。该书对 ichton 的词义解释为“衣服”。 (6) 由V. de V eliam inof- Zernof 刊布的一部著于 16 世纪上半叶的《察合台语、古土耳其语词典》第 63 页记录了 ishtan 的词义为“及膝的内裤”。 (7) 在 Gerard clauson 刊布的由Muhammad Mahdi Xan 于 18 世纪所作的《察合台语、波斯语词典》中第 106 页对 ishtan 一词解释为“内衣”。 通过以上对 ichton 一词的词义考证，我们可以得出以下几点结论： (1) 语义方面：在古突厥语时期，ichton 的词义为“裤子、内裤”。随着语言的分化，在突厥语内部 ichton 的词义有所改变。在回鹘语、哈喀尼亚语、乌古斯语及察合台语中，ichton 词义为“裤子、内裤”。而在克普恰克语、古土耳其语以及 18 世纪察合台语中 ichton 词义为“内衣、衣服”。 (2) 语音方面：我们可以清楚地看到 ichton 在绝大多数突厥语中仅有 ch 和 sh 的替换现象，而元音“o”并未变为“a”。但在察合台语中语音却发生了一些变化，由最初的 ichton 变为察合台语时期的 ishtan。笔者认为产生这种现象的原因有两点：第一，舌叶清塞擦音 ch 和舌叶清擦音sh发音部位相近，在语流中容易发生音变现象。在《突厥语大词典》汉文版第一卷第 336 页中也对这一现象做了解释。在现代维吾尔语中 ch 变为sh的音变现象仍然存在，尤其是在词中和词尾。如：duch käl 一词在语流中变为 dush käl。第二，圆唇元音o 变为展唇元音 a 是受词首同为展唇元音 i 的影响而逐渐发生了音变。这也说明 ich 和 ton 组合后为适应对方彼此做了一些“妥协”。通过以上分析，我们可以大胆推测：ichton 在借入俄语以前就已变为ishtan，在口头语中这种现象可能发生得更早。 Ichton 仅在现代土耳其语中保留下来，写作ichdon。而在其它突厥语中逐渐消失。探究其原因很可能是 shim (裤子) 和 tambal(衬裤) (波斯语借词)两词逐渐取代了 ichton 的位置，致使 ichton 退出了维吾尔语历史舞台。然而它到了俄语这个新的栖息地后，又获得了广阔的发展空间。2. Ishtan 借入俄语的过程及在俄语中的发展 俄语借入 ishtan 一词的具体时间无史料可查，我们只能依据历史资料及对语言的分析来进行推测。 13 世纪蒙古两次西征，占领了中亚大部分地区，建立了 4 个汗国。其中成吉思汗次子察合台建立了察合台汗国，疆域兼有天山南北及阿姆河以东的广大地区。随着政权的统一，语言文字也逐渐趋于统一。察合台语正是在这一时期形成的，并于14 世纪以后通行于汗国的疆域。而此时的基辅罗斯(古俄国)正处于封建割据时期，有大约 15 个大公国和共和国，但也先后被蒙古所征服，并于13世纪40年代建立了金帐汗国，其地域与察合台汗国毗邻。自此在 200 余年间，这里一直处于蒙古的奴役压迫之下，直至 15 世纪推翻了蒙古政权建立统一的国家(始称“俄罗斯”)。正是这种政治因素和地理环境为突厥民族与古俄罗斯民族的接触创造了条件。当然借入方式不一定是直线型的，也有可能是经古俄语方言而进入标准语的。《俄语词汇学纲要》⑦一书指出，俄语在蒙古鞑靼人的统治时期从突厥语中大约借入 260 个词。如：аркан(套马索、套索)、сундук(箱子、柜子)、башмак(鞋)、армяк (农民的厚呢上衣、粗毛料外衣)、юбка(裙子) 等。这些词不仅数量大，而且意义范围也十分广泛。ishtan 便是其中之一。然而突厥语族中有许多种语言，要确定俄语是从哪一种语言借入的，若没有详实的文献资料绝非易事。笔者通过分析各方面资料认为：俄语由察合台语中借入 ishtan 一词的可能性为最大。首先，我们在前一部分已得出一个结论即在察合台语时期 ichton 已逐渐演变为 ishtan，这与俄语中的“裤子”штаны相比在语音上很接近，并且在词义上也相一致，均为“裤子”之义。其次，《俄罗斯风情录》⑧一书谈及古代服饰时指出罗斯人的“裤子”腰部用细腰带捆扎，裤腿塞入靴子里或包进裹脚布。这与当时的维吾尔民族的着装方式相似。此外，察合台语作为当时的一种“强势语言”对周边地区语言的影响较大，而且又具有语言接触的条件。因此，基于以上几点，笔者认为俄语中“裤子” штаны 一词是从察合台语中借入的。 Ishtan 一词进入俄语后在语音、语法、语义等方面不同程度地受到俄语的同化。 语音上，ishtan 为适应俄语语音的特点，词首元音“i”脱落，词尾增加元音“ы” 变为 штаны (俄语中 ы常表示双数、复数意义。如：夹式耳环клипсы、套鞋 боты、睫毛 ресницы、头发 волосы等等)。语法上，获得俄语词所具有的某些语法范畴并受俄语语法规则的支配。语义上，ishtan 一词在俄语中词义扩大。《大俄汉词典》⑨中 штаны有3 个义项：(1)裤子; (2) (动物腿部外侧)腿毛; (3)并为一个烟筒的两条烟道。很明显，后两个义项是“裤子”一词的引申义。此外，штаны 还构成一些派生词和词组。如：штанина (一条) 裤腿、штанишки儿童短裤、ватныештаны棉裤等。在俗语中则有остаться без штанов意为“破产，穷得连裤子也穿不上。” 由此可见，ishtan 借入俄语的时间必定久远。3. Ishtan 的回归 维吾尔语与俄语广泛接触是在 1871 年沙皇俄国侵占伊犁之后。在此后的 10 年间，俄语成为伊犁的官方语言。于是，大量的俄语借词 (主要是表示日常生活用品的词) 进入维吾尔语词汇。十月革命后，随着马列主义学说迅速传播，近代科学飞速发展，新疆与原苏联在各个领域交往日渐广泛，关于科学技术和社会政治等方面的俄语词汇大量进入维吾尔语中。ishtan 便是其中之一，同时借入的表示“裤子”的词还有 shalwur (大裆裤、紧脚裤、皮裤)、burulka (裤子)、gäläpi (马裤)，但 ishtan 却是其中使用最为广泛的一个，并成为维吾尔语基本词汇成员之一。维吾尔语中已有表“裤子”之义的 shim 和 tambal，为何又借入如此多的词?我们知道语言借用的首要原因是出于表达外来新概念的需要。18 世纪，俄国在彼得大帝实行改革后迅速强大起来，由于彼得大帝禁止穿旧式俄罗斯服装，从此人们的衣着开始西欧化，裤子的样式也开始多样化。这样，外来新式服装的进入，本民族语言中就需要有相应的词去指称它。由于当时借词均采用音译形式，因此 ishtan 一词就“面容”未改地回到了维吾尔语中。该词最初以 shtan 形式借入，由于维吾尔语不存在以复辅音起头的词，这样，为符合维吾尔语音规律逐渐以 ishtan 的形式固定下来。与此情况相同的还有 istakan (原为 stakan)、ishkap(原为 shkap) 等词。而在语义上也仅借入了“裤子”一个义项，这样语义和语音形式与借出时正好一致，这更增大了该词是俄语借自察合台语的可能性。 Ishtan 进入维吾尔语词汇体系后，也使原有词汇 shim 的词义及使用范围受到了影响。Shim 现主要指男裤、长裤及西裤。而 ishtan 的外延却不断扩大，可指各式各样的裤子。 综上所述，ishtan 源于古突厥语词汇，在察合台语时期借入俄语，后又回到了它的“发源地”。虽说语音的变化不是很大，但服饰的变化却赋于了ishtan 一词新的内涵，绝非过去意义上的“裤子”。 语言就像一面镜子可以折射出社会历史和文化的变迁，词汇又是见证这些变迁活动的活化石。我们可以把词汇作为突破口，来了解古代人们的语言状况和生活方式以及民族间的经济、文化交流情况，ishtan 一词的词源正是验证了这一点。维吾尔语中的回流外来词不仅仅是 ishtan 一个，还有更多的等待我们去发现。注释：①《突厥语大词典》汉文版第一卷第 336 页、第 43 页、第 117 页。②《突厥语大词典》汉文版第一卷第 40 页。③ 牛汝极：《维吾尔古文字与古文献导读》第 85 页。④ 耿世民：《回鹘文摩尼教寺院文书初释》欧洲中亚学报，1991 年。⑤《突厥语大词典》(汉文版)第一卷 336 页。⑥W. Bang、A. von Gabain、R. R. A rat.《吐鲁番的突厥文献》第 7 卷第 26 页第 9～10 行。⑦张良玺：《俄语词汇学纲要》 吉林大学出版社，1991 年，第 182 页。⑧ В·波里先科 Ю·普罗霍罗夫：《俄罗斯文化国情词典》外语教学与研究出版社，1995 年，第 122 页。⑨《大俄汉词典》商务印书馆，1985 年，第 2573 页。* 作者简介: 常红 (1971— ) ，女，汉族，讲师，新疆大学人文学院 2002 级硕士研究生，研究方向：维吾尔语词汇学。参考文献：[1] 符怀青. 现代汉语词汇 [M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，1985.[2] Gerard clauson. 13 世纪前突厥语词源学词典[M] . the clarendon p ress，1972.[3] 孙成木，俄国通史简编 (上) [M]. 北京：人民出版社，1986.[4] 刘志霄. 维吾尔族历史 (上编) [M]. 北京：民族出版社，1985. 来源： 语言与翻译(汉文)，2005年第 1 期 (总第 81 期)

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Transformational-Generative Grammar

In the 1950s the school of linguistic thought known as transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.
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Generative grammar

A generative grammar views linguistics combinatorially, through use of formal grammars. A generative grammar is defined as one that is fully explicit, in the sense that it consists of a set of rules by which it is possible to decide whether any given sentence is grammatical or not. In most cases, a generative grammar is capable of identifying as grammatical ("generating") an infinite number of strings, from a finite set of rules. This is obviously a requirement for a correct grammar of any natural human language.Generative grammars can be described and compared with the aid of the Chomsky hierarchy proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s. This sets out a series of types of generative grammar of incresing power. The simplest is a finite state grammar, in which the rules are those of a Markov process of finite order; this is not a serious model for any natural human language, because all such languages allow the embedding of strings within strings in a hierarchical way. At the next level of complexity is a phrase structure grammar. On this view, a sentence is not a string of words, but rather a tree with subordinate and superordinate branches connected at nodes. The generating events are then hidden, hierarchically organised, and non-linear events, behind speech.Essentially, the tree model works something like this example, in which S is a sentence, D is a determiner, N a noun, V a verb, NP a noun phrase and VP a verb phrase:S / \ NP VP / \ / \ D N V NP / \ D NThe resulting sentence could be The dog ate the bone. Such a tree diagram is called a phrase marker. They can be represented more conveniently in a text form, (though the result is less easy to read): in this format the above sentence would be rendered as: [S[NP The dog] [VP ate [NP the bone />] or [S[NP D N] [VP V [NP D N />] A phrase marker only represents the grammatical structure of a sentence, not its semantic content. So the same phrase marker could equally well represent These elephants paraphrase the dinner. Consequently, part of the aim of generative grammar has to be to explain how native speakers "know" which sentences are meaningful as well as grammatical; this is the study of semantics as distinct from syntax or syntactics. However Chomsky argued that phrase structure grammars are also inadequate for describing natural languages, and it is necessary to proceed to a more abstract type of grammar, transformational grammar. When generative grammar was first described, it was widely hailed as a way of explaining the implicit set of rules a person "knows" when they know their native language and produce grammatical utterances in it. However Chomsky has repeatedly rejected that interpretation; according to him, the grammar of a language is a statement of what it is that a person has to know in order to recognise an utterance as grammatical, but not a hypothesis about the processes involved in either understanding or producing language. In any case the reality is that most native speakers would reject many sentences produced even by a phrase structure grammar. For example, although infinite embedding is allowed by the grammar, it is not accepted by either speakers or listeners, and the limit of acceptability is an empirical matter that varies between individuals, not something that can be easily captured in a formal grammar.. The influence of generative grammar in empirical psycholinguistics has reduced considerably.

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维吾尔自然语言处理开拓人——吐尔根·依布拉音

吐尔根·依布拉音，男，维吾尔族，1958年8月生于北京，1983年毕业于新疆大学，1991-1992年赴俄罗斯圣彼得堡国立电子技术大学留学深造，1993年回国任新疆大学计算机科学系副系主任。现任新疆大学信息科学与工程学院教授、博士生导师，新疆大学计算中心常务副主任兼信息科学与工程学院副院长。全国高校计算机基础教学研究会理事、新疆计算机教育研究会常务理事、《中文信息学报》编委等。乌鲁木齐市第九、第十届政协委员，新疆维吾尔自治区第九届政协委员。现在的研究领域和方向： 计算机应用，自然语言处理，软件工程。长期从事多文种信息技术的研究和开发工作。主要成果有：“维——汉声、图、文一体化办公自动化系统”、“维——汉声、图、文一体化信息处理环境及应用系统” 这些系统曾在1998年8月全国第十一届发明专利博览会上获“发明专利银制奖”和“自治区优秀科技成果金杯奖”，1999年获自治区科技进步二等奖（第四）。2001年获国家科技进步二等奖（第二）。2003年获自治区优秀教学成果三等奖（第一）。在多年的教学科研工作中攻克了民族语言文字的信息处理上的多个关键技术，发表论文30余篇，参编计算机基础教材2部，主编2部，编译民族语言计算机基础教材多部，为边疆的信息化事业作出了重大贡献。目前，主持国家自然科学基金项目一项，国家科技部基础研究项目一项，自治区科技攻关项目一项。

新疆餐饮介绍

新疆人的主食是面条(Leghmen)、馕(Nan)和牛羊肉，他们的菜以酸辣口味为主，洋葱、番茄、辣椒、土豆用大蒜头等是常用的蔬菜配料，少不了孜然、辣椒粉、醋等调味料，所以新疆菜总是香喷喷、又酸又辣，特别开胃。总地来说，新疆各民族的人们都偏爱吃面食、奶制品、牛羊肉及各种瓜果。
　　维吾尔族的人常吃馕(Nan)、抓饭(Polo)、面条(Leghmen)、烤羊肉(Kawap)、青炖羊肉(Shorpa)，蔬菜类喜欢吃胡萝卜(Sewze)和洋葱，饮料主要是奶茶和砖茶。
哈萨克人吃牛、羊、马肉，爱喝马奶，也喜食抓饭，平时很少吃蔬果；塔吉克人除了不吃马肉、不饮马奶外，其他的饮食习惯基本与其他民族大致相同。
小贴士：除了蒙古族，新疆各民族都不食猪肉，你到了新疆还是入乡随俗，暂时先放弃吃猪肉的习惯，这样会处处都方便一些。

古丝绸路 The Silk Road

丝绸之路是一条具有历史意义的国际通道，正是这条古道把古老的中国文化、印度文化、波斯文化、阿拉伯文化和古希腊、古罗马文化连接起来，促进了东西方文明的交流。这条东起中国古都长安（今西安）、西至地中海东岸的古丝道有一半是在新疆境内，因此新疆是东西文化的荟萃交融之地，留下了许多历史遗迹。在新疆绵延的丝绸之路上，遗留着许多举世闻名的关隘、城堡、石窟寺、墓葬及烽火台等。现保存最好的遗址，要数吐鲁番盆地的高昌和交河古城。另外，新疆境内多佛窟，较大的有克孜尔千佛洞、库木吐拉千佛洞、克孜尔尕哈千佛洞、森木塞姆千佛洞和柏孜克里克千佛洞等5个。古丝道上，最令人神往的莫过于楼兰古城。它处于罗布泊西北角，是丝绸之路的咽喉，曾经有过商旅往来盛极一时的历史，如今只剩下被流沙淹没的古城遗址。

新疆介绍 About XinJiang

在古代丝绸之路上，有一片美丽富饶的土地，这就是占中国面积1/6的新疆维吾尔自治区 (Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomy Region)。新疆自治区成立于1955年，下辖5个州和8个地区以及3个省辖市。新疆风光壮美，同时具有雪山、草原、沙漠、盆地、河谷等自然景观；不仅如此，昔日繁华的丝绸之路又给新疆带来了多姿多彩的东西方文化，在新疆各地留下了饱含文化意味的遗迹，今天，那些为数众多的古城和洞窟已经成为最可宝贵的人文旅游资源。
新疆的主要旅游城市有乌鲁木齐 (Urumchi)、喀什(kashghari or Qeshqer)、伊犁 (Ili)、库尔勒 (Korla)、吐鲁番 (Turpan)，这些城市周边也都有上佳的景点。飘香的瓜果和少数民族同胞们欢畅的歌舞构成了新疆这个各民族友好相处的乐园，正象有首歌里唱的那样：“咱们新疆好地方”。
附：新疆黄金旅游线重要数据简称：新 面积：160多万平方公里 人口：1733万，区内聚居 47个民族，主体民族维吾尔族人口719万，被誉为“民族之窗”。 位置：地处祖国西北边疆，东北隔阿尔泰山与蒙古为邻，西与俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、阿富汗、巴基斯坦、印度等国接壤。
首府：乌鲁木齐 (Urumchi or Urumqi)