X - BAR SYNTAX
Robert N. St. Clair
INTRODUCTION
The traditional parts of speech have undergone many changes since their inception among the Roman grammarians. The structuralists found them to be inadequate in accounting for the kinds of grammatical categories that exist among most of the non-European languages in the world. When Chomsky developed his model of transformational grammar, he returned to the issue of the traditional parts of speech. He argued that all languages should have similar parts of speech. The reasons for this assertion is based on his assumption that there are universal phrase structure rules that operate across all languages. The universal parts of speech in the earliest model of his grammar were few in number (NP, Det, AUX, VP, S) but with the passage of time they were expanded to include other lexical and phrasal categories.LEXICAL CATEGORIES N = NounV = VerbAUX = Auxiliary VerbA = AdjectiveADV = AdverbDET = DeterminerDEG = Degree of ExpressionCONJ = Coordinating ConjunctionPRO = Pro Constituent or Pro FormQ = Quantifier PHRASAL CATEGORIES S = Sentence or ClauseNP = Noun PhraseVP = Verb PhraseAP = Adjectival PhrasePP = Prepositional PhraseADVP = Adverbial PhraseQP = Quantifier Phrase THE PROBLEM WITH PHRASE STRUCTURE CATEGORIES Linguists began to notice that there were problems with the aforementioned lexical and phrasal categories. The problem was that they needed another kind of category between lexical and phrasal categories. For the present, this new level will be called the X-Bar category.Phrasal Categories X-Bar Categories Lexical Categories The reason that they needed these new "phrase structure nodes" had to do with the process of pronominalization. This occurs when a Noun or a Noun Phrase is substituted by a pro-form. The man saw Harry (Noun) The man saw him (Pronoun)I like fast cars (Noun Phrase)I like them (Pro Noun Phrase) Linguists discovered that other kinds of constituents are pronominalized. These constituents are neither full noun phrases nor mere lexical phrases, but phrases that are intermediate to these, viz., X-Bar Categories. Consider the example of "very tall" in the following phrase marker:
Wednesday, March 26, 2008
Wednesday, March 12, 2008
语言学的流派
1、历史比较语言学，奠基人：丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑；2、结构语言学，包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派；3、转换生成学派；4、系统功能学派；5、社会语言学派。主要的语言学家及其代表作 索绪尔 （瑞士） 《普通语言学教程》被称为现代语言学之父 布龙菲尔德（美国）《语言论》是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作。 特鲁贝茨科依（俄国）《音位学原理》 是布拉格学派的杰出代表。 乔姆斯基（美国）《句法结构》是转换生成学派的代表。 高本汉（瑞典）《中国音韵学研究》 韩礼徳 （英国）《功能语法导论》系统功能学派代表 拉波天（美国）〈语言演变理论的经验基础〉社会语言学代表 赵元任（中国）〈现代吴语的研究〉〈音位标音法的多能性〉 叶尔姆斯列夫(丹麦）《语言理论导论》哥本哈根学派代表十四、为什么说历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位？ 历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法，通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们的共同母语。历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，主要是印欧语系的历史比较，19世纪之前，这种研究不是没有，但都是孤立的分散的研究，到19世纪才进入系统的研究，并使语言学走上独立发展的道路。19世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学的发展做出了重要贡献。他们收集了丰富的语言材料，进行了广泛深入的调查和比较，不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的譜系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。
From: http://www.kashghari.com/zh-cn/
From: http://www.kashghari.com/zh-cn/
Saturday, February 23, 2008
HISTORY OF KASHGAR 4
Bashkeram Orchard
Kashgar has always enjoyed the reputation of being a "Land of Fruits and Melons," with Bashkeram ranking first in the area. Among the great variety of fruits in Bashkeram , apricot alone has more than twenty strains, and grape, apple and pear have nearly twenty strains each.Also there are many strains of cherry, plum, peach, quince, date and so on. Each of the fruits has early middle and late ripening varieties. In May, the white, sweet and tasty mulberry ripens and , from then on, apricot, cherry, fig, sweet-kernel peach, jasper peach, flat peach , pear, apple,grape, pomegranate and pistachio and badam, the high-valued dry nut fruits in China,ripen one after another. The fruit harvest does not end until the beginning of November.You will find it easily by the help of local guide or taxi driver.
Chini Bagh
In Uyghur,Beautiful garden,was the home of for 28 years of the most famous of British India's representatives in Kashgar,Sir George Macartney and his wife.The gardes are destroyed to make room for large tourist hotel,Chini Bagh Hotel,and behind it id the house where the Macartneys lived.Now reserved for official visitors.
Russion Consulate
The once luxurios. Russion Consulate (now Seman Hotel) was the home of the powerful Nikolai Petrovsky,Macartney's chief adversary in the Great game.Now it is made room for tourists.If any one want to check in,have to make reservation through any organization in Kashgar.
Three Immortal Budda Caves
It is 10km. Away from Kashgar on the road to Torugart Pass.From opposite side of Qakmak river,it is visible but it is impossible to see inside without taking special way.It is 30m above of river at the cliff.Dating from the second and third century,they are the earliest Buddist caves extant in China.However,if you are intentupon seeing them,arrangements must be made by KMA.Karakul Lake It si 190km from Kashgar om the Kara Koram Highway with the elevation of 3600m aboe sea level..It is on the lap of tw giants,Muztagh Ata regardec "the father of ice mountains",Kongur reputated with more avalanche.It is rare highland lake in the world.by the lake,there are yurst and restaurant available for tourists to stop and over night.In a fine day,You get a good view of Muz- tagh Ata and Kongur and snow-cappad peaks , flocks of animals,grassland are all invertedly reflected in the water,wich looks magistic.
From: http://www.kashghari.com/en
Kashgar has always enjoyed the reputation of being a "Land of Fruits and Melons," with Bashkeram ranking first in the area. Among the great variety of fruits in Bashkeram , apricot alone has more than twenty strains, and grape, apple and pear have nearly twenty strains each.Also there are many strains of cherry, plum, peach, quince, date and so on. Each of the fruits has early middle and late ripening varieties. In May, the white, sweet and tasty mulberry ripens and , from then on, apricot, cherry, fig, sweet-kernel peach, jasper peach, flat peach , pear, apple,grape, pomegranate and pistachio and badam, the high-valued dry nut fruits in China,ripen one after another. The fruit harvest does not end until the beginning of November.You will find it easily by the help of local guide or taxi driver.
Chini Bagh
In Uyghur,Beautiful garden,was the home of for 28 years of the most famous of British India's representatives in Kashgar,Sir George Macartney and his wife.The gardes are destroyed to make room for large tourist hotel,Chini Bagh Hotel,and behind it id the house where the Macartneys lived.Now reserved for official visitors.
Russion Consulate
The once luxurios. Russion Consulate (now Seman Hotel) was the home of the powerful Nikolai Petrovsky,Macartney's chief adversary in the Great game.Now it is made room for tourists.If any one want to check in,have to make reservation through any organization in Kashgar.
Three Immortal Budda Caves
It is 10km. Away from Kashgar on the road to Torugart Pass.From opposite side of Qakmak river,it is visible but it is impossible to see inside without taking special way.It is 30m above of river at the cliff.Dating from the second and third century,they are the earliest Buddist caves extant in China.However,if you are intentupon seeing them,arrangements must be made by KMA.Karakul Lake It si 190km from Kashgar om the Kara Koram Highway with the elevation of 3600m aboe sea level..It is on the lap of tw giants,Muztagh Ata regardec "the father of ice mountains",Kongur reputated with more avalanche.It is rare highland lake in the world.by the lake,there are yurst and restaurant available for tourists to stop and over night.In a fine day,You get a good view of Muz- tagh Ata and Kongur and snow-cappad peaks , flocks of animals,grassland are all invertedly reflected in the water,wich looks magistic.
From: http://www.kashghari.com/en
HISTORY OF KASHGAR 3
ECONOMY
The industry of Kashgar was developed very slowly. Nowdays variors industrial sys-tems have been completed, including coal, electric power, cement, building materials, chemistry, farming machinery,textile, leather products, ceramics, paper-making and food processing industries. Cotton printing and dyeing,cement producing, and hydropower are the key industrial enterprises of Kashgar. The highway network, Taking Kashgari as a hub,Are: Tibet-Xinjiang Highway crossing the Kunlun Mountains with a total length of 1,184 kilometers. Xinjiang-Qinhai Highway (go along the southern Silk Road) Famous Karakoram highway(KKH) Highway to Kyrgyzstan via Torugart Pass and Erkashtam Pass Kashgar-Urunqi Highway Kashgar Prefecture has 415,620 hectares of cultivated land, 1.33 million hectares of reclaimable l-and and 2.26 million hectares of pastureland, of which 239,467 hectares is first rate. The content of organic substances of the soil generally ranges from 0.5 to 10 percent. Wheat, maize and cotton are the main crops.In Kashgar also grows rice, barley, highland barley, rape, sesame, peanuts and flax.
SCIENCE, EDUCATION, CULTURE AND COMUNICATION
Kashar has two institutions fro advanced learning, one is branch of the Central Television Universiy,Kasshgar teacher's college, seven specialized secondary schools, 172 ordinary secondary schools and 1,098 elementary schools.There are fourteen professional organizations fro litireture, art, photograph, dance. Kashgar Daily is published here in Uyghur and Chinese. Kasgar has fine television broadcasting system and tlecom system.International call and internet is available everywhere.Most of the part can receive CCTVprogram in different chanels. l.
From: http://www.kashghari.com/en
The industry of Kashgar was developed very slowly. Nowdays variors industrial sys-tems have been completed, including coal, electric power, cement, building materials, chemistry, farming machinery,textile, leather products, ceramics, paper-making and food processing industries. Cotton printing and dyeing,cement producing, and hydropower are the key industrial enterprises of Kashgar. The highway network, Taking Kashgari as a hub,Are: Tibet-Xinjiang Highway crossing the Kunlun Mountains with a total length of 1,184 kilometers. Xinjiang-Qinhai Highway (go along the southern Silk Road) Famous Karakoram highway(KKH) Highway to Kyrgyzstan via Torugart Pass and Erkashtam Pass Kashgar-Urunqi Highway Kashgar Prefecture has 415,620 hectares of cultivated land, 1.33 million hectares of reclaimable l-and and 2.26 million hectares of pastureland, of which 239,467 hectares is first rate. The content of organic substances of the soil generally ranges from 0.5 to 10 percent. Wheat, maize and cotton are the main crops.In Kashgar also grows rice, barley, highland barley, rape, sesame, peanuts and flax.
SCIENCE, EDUCATION, CULTURE AND COMUNICATION
Kashar has two institutions fro advanced learning, one is branch of the Central Television Universiy,Kasshgar teacher's college, seven specialized secondary schools, 172 ordinary secondary schools and 1,098 elementary schools.There are fourteen professional organizations fro litireture, art, photograph, dance. Kashgar Daily is published here in Uyghur and Chinese. Kasgar has fine television broadcasting system and tlecom system.International call and internet is available everywhere.Most of the part can receive CCTVprogram in different chanels. l.
From: http://www.kashghari.com/en
HISTORY OF KASHGAR 2
LOCATION AND AREA
Kashgar is 141,600 square kiolmeters in total area and between latitude 35 20 to 40 18 north and longitude 73 20 to 79 57 east in the sourthen part of Xinjiang, is contiguous with the Taklimakan Desert on its east and borders Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India to its west and southwest respectively. The city of Kashgar, a place of strategic importance in south Xinjiang, has an area of fifteen square kilometers with an average elevation of 1289.5 meters. The city is located between latitude 39 25 to 39 35 north and longitude 75 56 to 76 04 east and lies 1,473 kilometers from Urumchi,capital city of of Xinjianng Uihgur Autonomous Region.
POPULATION AND NATIONALITIES
Kashi Prefecture has a population of 3.3 million, of which the Uygur nationality comprises 92.92 percent, the Han, 5.6 percent and the Tajik, 1.03 percent, with the other 0.45 percent made up of Hui, Kirgiz, Ozbek, Kazak, Manchu, Xibe, Mongol, Tatar and Daur nationalities.The city of Kashar has a population of 200,000, 74.62 percent of which is Uyghur and 24.32 percent of which is Han Chinese and other minorities.
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Kashar Prefecture has one city (Kashag) and eleven counties: Tokkuzak(Shufu in Chinese), Yengishar (Shule), Yengisar, Yopurga, Payzawatt, Yarkant(Shache), Poskam(Zepu), Kahilik(Yecheng), Markit, Maralbashi (Bachu) and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County,under its jurisdiction. There are twenty-six towns and subdistrict offices, 134 townships, 2,310 villagers' committees and ninety-six neighborhood committees in Kashgar.
CLIMATE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Kashgar is located in the temparate zone of a continental climate. The climate in this area varies greatly because of the varied topograghy. Specifically, the Kashgar can be divid-ed into zones plain climate, desert climate, mountain climate, the Pamir Plateau climate and the Kunlun Mountains climate. Located in the plain climate zone with the clear four seasons, Kashgar has a long summer and a short winter. The annual mean temperature is 11.7 C, with the lowest temperature of -24.4° C in January and the hottest 40.1°C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. The annual mean precipitation is 27 millimeters. The two river system of the Yarkant River and the Kashgar River in this area have five big rivers with a total annual runoff of 10.9 to 11.9 billion cubic meters. The volume of underground water in this area is about one billion cubic meters. The per capita water volume of the whole prefecture is about 5,000 cubic meters, twice the national figure. The hydropower reserves of the prefecture are about 7.6 million kilowatt, 1,2 million of which can be easily exploited. Mineral resoures in the prefecture include coal, mica, asbestos,g-ypsum, limestone, natural sulphur, vanadium, titaniun, iron copper, zinc, nickel, phosphorus, beryllium, white marble and so on. Oil deposits, in particular, are considerably large and several of oil wells have been drilled in Kasgar. Flora resources in the prefecture include mountain vegetation, plain vegetation, oasis vegetation, desert vegetation and marshland vegetation. The proportion of forested-land is 1.7 percent with 94,667 hectares of primitive forests. In Kashgar grows variety of trees,sush as poplar, willow, mulberry, narrow-leaved oleaster, Chinese scholartree, Chinese parasol, pine, China fir, cypress, divesiform-leaved poplar and red willow. Average Temperature per month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMaximum 0 4 14 22 26 30 32 31 26 20 10 1Minimum -11 -6 2 9 13 16 19 18 12 5 -2 -8
Kashgar is 141,600 square kiolmeters in total area and between latitude 35 20 to 40 18 north and longitude 73 20 to 79 57 east in the sourthen part of Xinjiang, is contiguous with the Taklimakan Desert on its east and borders Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India to its west and southwest respectively. The city of Kashgar, a place of strategic importance in south Xinjiang, has an area of fifteen square kilometers with an average elevation of 1289.5 meters. The city is located between latitude 39 25 to 39 35 north and longitude 75 56 to 76 04 east and lies 1,473 kilometers from Urumchi,capital city of of Xinjianng Uihgur Autonomous Region.
POPULATION AND NATIONALITIES
Kashi Prefecture has a population of 3.3 million, of which the Uygur nationality comprises 92.92 percent, the Han, 5.6 percent and the Tajik, 1.03 percent, with the other 0.45 percent made up of Hui, Kirgiz, Ozbek, Kazak, Manchu, Xibe, Mongol, Tatar and Daur nationalities.The city of Kashar has a population of 200,000, 74.62 percent of which is Uyghur and 24.32 percent of which is Han Chinese and other minorities.
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Kashar Prefecture has one city (Kashag) and eleven counties: Tokkuzak(Shufu in Chinese), Yengishar (Shule), Yengisar, Yopurga, Payzawatt, Yarkant(Shache), Poskam(Zepu), Kahilik(Yecheng), Markit, Maralbashi (Bachu) and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County,under its jurisdiction. There are twenty-six towns and subdistrict offices, 134 townships, 2,310 villagers' committees and ninety-six neighborhood committees in Kashgar.
CLIMATE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Kashgar is located in the temparate zone of a continental climate. The climate in this area varies greatly because of the varied topograghy. Specifically, the Kashgar can be divid-ed into zones plain climate, desert climate, mountain climate, the Pamir Plateau climate and the Kunlun Mountains climate. Located in the plain climate zone with the clear four seasons, Kashgar has a long summer and a short winter. The annual mean temperature is 11.7 C, with the lowest temperature of -24.4° C in January and the hottest 40.1°C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. The annual mean precipitation is 27 millimeters. The two river system of the Yarkant River and the Kashgar River in this area have five big rivers with a total annual runoff of 10.9 to 11.9 billion cubic meters. The volume of underground water in this area is about one billion cubic meters. The per capita water volume of the whole prefecture is about 5,000 cubic meters, twice the national figure. The hydropower reserves of the prefecture are about 7.6 million kilowatt, 1,2 million of which can be easily exploited. Mineral resoures in the prefecture include coal, mica, asbestos,g-ypsum, limestone, natural sulphur, vanadium, titaniun, iron copper, zinc, nickel, phosphorus, beryllium, white marble and so on. Oil deposits, in particular, are considerably large and several of oil wells have been drilled in Kasgar. Flora resources in the prefecture include mountain vegetation, plain vegetation, oasis vegetation, desert vegetation and marshland vegetation. The proportion of forested-land is 1.7 percent with 94,667 hectares of primitive forests. In Kashgar grows variety of trees,sush as poplar, willow, mulberry, narrow-leaved oleaster, Chinese scholartree, Chinese parasol, pine, China fir, cypress, divesiform-leaved poplar and red willow. Average Temperature per month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMaximum 0 4 14 22 26 30 32 31 26 20 10 1Minimum -11 -6 2 9 13 16 19 18 12 5 -2 -8
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